Political ideology emphasizing individual rights, constitutional government, and free markets.

Belief in the importance of national identity based on shared culture, language, and history.

Political ideology supporting traditional social hierarchies, monarchies, and established institutions.

A period of major technological advancement that began in Great Britain and spread to other parts of Europe and the US.

Policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means.

Belief that Europeans had a duty to civilize non-European peoples.

A distribution of power among nations so that no single state can dominate.

The belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests.

A political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole.

The process by which large numbers of people become permanently concentrated in relatively small areas, forming cities.

Causes: Napoleon's defeat. Effects: Re-established monarchies, created a balance of power, fueled nationalist sentiments.

Causes: Resources, capital, stable government in Britain. Effects: Technological innovations, factory production, urbanization, new social classes.

Causes: Economic needs, political competition, belief in European superiority. Effects: Colonization, exploitation of resources, increased tensions among European powers.

Causes: Economic hardship, political discontent. Effects: Showed the growing power of liberalism and nationalism, but often failed to achieve long-term goals.

Causes: Mutual defense pacts. Effects: Escalation of conflicts, increased tensions, contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

Causes: Shared culture, language, and history. Effects: Movements for unification (Italy and Germany), independence (Greece), and increased tensions between nations.

Causes: Desire for military strength, competition among nations. Effects: Arms race, glorification of military power, increased the likelihood of war.

Causes: New scientific discoveries and technological innovations. Effects: Growth of large corporations, increased global trade, new consumer goods, further urbanization.

Causes: Economic interests, political rivalries, and cultural beliefs. Effects: Exploitation of African resources, political instability, redrawing of African boundaries, long-term social and economic consequences.

Causes: Serbian nationalism, Austro-Hungarian imperialism. Effects: Triggered a chain reaction of alliances and declarations of war, leading to the outbreak of World War I.

Liberalism emphasizes individual rights and constitutional government, while nationalism emphasizes national identity and unity. Both challenged the conservative order.

The First IR was characterized by steam power and textiles, while the Second IR was characterized by electricity, steel, and chemicals. The Second IR saw larger corporations and greater global trade.

Both were driven by liberal and nationalist sentiments, but the 1848 revolutions were more widespread and radical, though often ultimately unsuccessful.

The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Triple Entente (France, Great Britain, Russia) were rival alliance systems that contributed to the outbreak of WWI.

The first wave of imperialism was driven by mercantilism and the search for resources, while the second wave was fueled by industrial needs, political rivalries, and cultural beliefs like the 'White Man's Burden'.

Both revolutions led to urbanization and new social classes. The second IR saw a greater rise in the middle class and increased consumerism.

The Congress of Vienna aimed to restore the old order and establish a balance of power, while the Concert of Europe was designed to maintain that balance and suppress revolutionary movements.

In Western Europe, nationalism led to unification of states like Italy and Germany. In Eastern Europe, it threatened to break apart multi-ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

Great Britain was concerned with maintaining the balance of power and protecting its colonial interests, while Germany sought to expand its influence and challenge British naval supremacy, both contributing to rising tensions.

Capitalism emphasizes private ownership and free markets, while socialism advocates for public or collective ownership and greater economic equality. Both emerged as responses to the social and economic changes brought about by industrialization.