A political system where a monarch holds supreme autocratic authority, not restricted by laws or a constitution.

A period of major industrialization that took place during the late 1700s and early 1800s, characterized by new technologies and manufacturing processes.

An economic theory that promotes governmental regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers.

An intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, emphasizing reason and individualism.

An artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century, emphasizing emotion and individualism.

Independent states that possess full control over their own affairs within their territorial boundaries.

Agriculture undertaken primarily for sale, rather than consumption by the farmer and their family.

The act of using resources, especially natural resources, for economic growth, often at the expense of environmental or social well-being.

The process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more and more people begin living and working in central areas.

The amount by which the value of a country's exports exceeds the value of its imports.

The Enlightenment emphasized reason and individualism, while Romanticism prioritized emotion, intuition, and tradition. They represent contrasting philosophical values of the 18th century.

The Glorious Revolution resulted in a constitutional monarchy and limited reforms, while the French Revolution aimed to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic, leading to more radical social and political changes.

Subsistence farming is primarily for personal consumption, while commercial agriculture is focused on producing crops for sale and profit.

The Industrial Revolution transformed economic and social structures through technological advancements, while the Enlightenment influenced political thought and challenged traditional authority.

Mercantilism aims to accumulate wealth for the mother country through trade surpluses and government regulation, while free trade promotes open markets and minimal government intervention.

The Act of Union unified two kingdoms into one, while the Peace of Westphalia recognized the sovereignty of individual states, leading to different forms of political consolidation.

The Seven Years' War was primarily driven by colonial competition, while the French Revolution stemmed from internal social and economic inequalities.

The steam engine revolutionized manufacturing and transportation, while improved infrastructure like canals and postal systems enhanced trade and communication, both contributing to economic expansion.

Reason was central to the Enlightenment, guiding scientific inquiry and political thought, while emotion was prioritized in Romanticism as a source of inspiration and individual expression.

Urbanization led to new social classes and problems within Europe, while colonial expansion resulted in the exploitation of indigenous populations and the transfer of wealth and resources.

A French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars.